The partnership construct is based on the premise that collaborating partners have some common basis for action and a sense of mutuality that supports their joint ventures. Teachers and parents have a common need for joining together in partnership: the need to foster positive growth in children and in themselves. It is their challenge to create a sense of mutuality so that their efforts are meaningful to all those involved.
    Research provides insight on parent attributes that support meaningful partnerships. These attributes include warmth, sensitivity, nurturance, the ability to listen, consistency, a positive self-image, a sense of efficacy, personal competence, and effective interpersonal skills.
    Marital happiness, family harmony, success in prior collaborations, and openness to others' ideas have also been related to parental competence in promoting partnerships (Swick, 1991). Schaefer (1985) has noted that parents who are high in self-esteem are more assertive in their family and school involvement. Not all parents achieve the competence that supports these attributes. Teachers can provide a setting that encourages the development of partnership behaviors in parents. Modeling respect and communication skills, showing a genuine interest in the children, responding constructively to parent concerns, promoting a teamwork philosophy, and being sensitive to parent and family needs are some ways to promote this process. Lawler (1991) suggests that teachers encourage parents to be positive through the example they set in being supportive, responsive, and dependable.
    Teacher attributes that appear to positively influence teachers' relationships with children and parents include: warmth, openness, sensitivity, flexibility, reliability, and accessibility (Comer and Haynes, 1991). From the parents' perspective, these teacher characteristics are desirable: trust, warmth, closeness, positive self-image, effective classroom management, child-centeredness, positive discipline, nurturance, and effective teaching skills. Researchers have cited the following teacher attributes as highly related to successful parent involvement: positive attitudes, active planning to involve parents, continuous teacher training, involvement in professional growth, and personal competence (Epstein, 1984; Galinsky, 1990).
The research on parent involvement indicates that parents and teachers can create viable partnerships by engaging in joint learning activities, supporting each other in their respective roles, carrying out classroom and school improvement activities, conducting collaborative curriculum projects in the classroom, participating together in various decision-making activities, and being advocates for children (Swick, 1991). Integral to these activities are the various parent and teacher roles and behaviors that make for successful partnerships.
    Parenting roles are performed within the family and within family-school relationships. Roles critical to family growth are nurturing, teaching, and modeling. Within the larger family-school structure, parents must carry out learning, doing, supporting, and decision-making roles. Naturally, parents use these various roles across contexts, but they emphasize particular roles as family or family-school situations dictate (Schaefer, 1985). For example, recent findings suggest that when parents sense an
inviting school climate, they emphasize nurturing and supporting behaviors in their interactions with teachers; their participation in the school environment also increases (Comer and Haynes, 1991).
    Teacher roles critical to the partnership process include the family-centered roles of support, education, and guidance. Teacher roles that focus on family involvement in school and classroom activities include those of nurturing, supporting, guiding, and decision-making.  Together, parents and teachers can foster their partnership through such behaviors as collaborating, planning, communicating and evaluating (Epstein and Dauber, 1991; Swick, 1991). (Swick 1-2).
Parents and teachers share responsibility for creating a working relationship that fosters children's learning. It is important for teachers and parents to remember that they know the child in different contexts, and that each may be unaware of what the child is like in the other context. It is also useful to keep in mind generally that different people often have distinct but differing perspectives on the same issue.
    For many parents, a fundamental part of the parenting role is to be their child's strongest advocate with the teacher and the school (Katz, 1995). Other parents, however, may be reluctant to express their concerns because of cultural beliefs related to the authoritative position of the teacher. Others may have difficulty talking with teachers as a result of memories of their own school years, or they may be unsure of how to express their concerns to teachers. A few parents may fear that questions or criticism will put their child at a disadvantage in school.
    Many parents may be surprised to learn that teachers, especially new teachers, are sometimes equally anxious about encounters with parents. Most teachers have received very little training in fostering parent-teacher relationships, but with the growing understanding of the importance of parent involvement, they may worry about doing everything they can to encourage parents to feel welcome (Greenwood & Hickman, 1991). (Katz 1-3).
    According to Jere Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competence acquired "through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)."
    Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning. When parents nurture their children's natural curiosity about the world by welcoming their questions, encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with resources that can enlarge their world, they are giving their children the message that learning is worthwhile and frequently fun and satisfying.
    When children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning. Conversely, when children do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished.
    Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.
    The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence (Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1988) notes, "To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn."  Schoolwide goals, policies, and procedures also interact with classroom climate and practices to affirm or alter students' increasingly complex learning-related attitudes and beliefs. A growing number of urban school reform initiatives seeking to transform failing schools engage significant numbers of parents.
    The initiatives strive to change a school's culture; the quality of relationships among educators, parents, and children; and students' educational outcomes. The initiatives work toward effecting systemic change in a school, and they situate their reform efforts within the context of the surrounding community. Further, since schools alone cannot solve the problems imported into them from society, some projects reach beyond schools; they draw upon the power of community institutions, such as churches and civic groups, to improve schools and aspects of life in the community that impact -education. Successful systemic initiatives usually result in an increase in the quantity and quality of the various forms of parent involvement identified by Epstein (1995), such as parent volunteers in the school, and parents helping their children with homework.  Many such initiatives have succeeded in improving student academic achievement and transforming the culture of schools (Lumsden 1-3).
    The initiators of collaborative reform projects tend to view a school and its surrounding neighborhood as a part of an interdependent social ecology that must be understood as a whole in order to identify problems and develop solutions (Heckman, 1996a; Murnane & Levy, 1996; Lewis, 1997). They address the ways that the strengths and difficulties in a school and neighborhood can affect each other and the children in both contexts (Giles 1-3).

    Many factors contribute to a student's success or failure in school.  Teachers, parents, and the community can all influence students.  Teachers are under a great deal of pressure to teach students everything that they need to know.  Parents need to realize that education does not stop once the child steps out of the classroom.  Some parents just send their children to school and expect them to get everything they need in those seven hours.  School environment, home environment, and community environment all interact to create a student's overall learning environment.
    Many parents know that what they say and do has an effect on their child's performance in school.  However, there are complicating factors that obstruct parental involvement.  Time, cultural barriers, and lack of confidence in their own abilities and input hinder parental involvement.  Everyone involved in the education of children need to be aware of these obstacles and think about ways to overcome them.
    Time is a large problem for parents who want to take part in their child's education due to the increase in the number of single parent families and the need for a two income household.  Life today is fast paced and full of activity for both adults and children.  Adults are often working during the day or night.  Many employers do not allow employees to take time off to take part in classroom activities.  Employers should be more understanding and encourage parents to interact in the classroom and school activities.  Parents also need to learn to set aside special time to spend  with their children.  The time a parent spends with their child will give the child security, support, and understanding that their education is important.
    The cultural make up of the United States is changing rapidly.  There are children from many different backgrounds in schools all across the country even in the most remote and rural areas.  Language and beliefs may cause parents not to get involved in education.  Many of the immigrants speak very little or no English.  This causes difficulty or uncertainty about dealing with teachers and schools.  Socioeconomic differences also effect parental involvement.  Low income parents may not have the confidence to take part in the school setting.  These parents also may have little or no formal education which can also cause problems.  Perspectives and beliefs about schools and education may vary greatly among these groups.  Parents and teachers need to be sensitive to these differences and take them into account at home and in the classroom.
    Parents who want to help their children succeed may have reservations about what they can do.  They may not know how to help their child.  Parents figure that the teacher has the degree and he/she knows what is best for the child's education.  The parents may have limited education and feel very unsure of whether or not their assistance would be useful or even wanted.  With a little bit of guidance and encouragement, these parents can learn that everyone's input counts and is worthwhile.  If  parents feel that their input is important and needed then they would be more willing to help their children with homework or in other areas where the child may need help.  Parents who do not get involved may have had bad experiences when they attended school.  The school setting may bring back bad memories or unpleasant feelings for them and they would rather just stay away.  There is no reason for parents to be intimidated when it comes to the education of their children.  Teachers are there to help the parents too.  Parents should not be afraid to ask questions and find ways to get involved in their child's education.
    Another aspect of parental involvement completely takes place outside of the classroom but directly effects a student=s performance.  The home environment is important to a child.  Making sure that the student has his/her basic needs met is vital to the child's education.  Whether or not the child has a safe environment, enough to eat, and a place to sleep and study make a difference.  Even if a parent cannot directly get involved in the classroom activities, they can ensure that a child has the proper home environment so that they can do their best at school.  Also working with the student at home is beneficial to the student.  Reading with them and helping with homework reinforces what is going on in the classroom.  Parental involvement goes beyond the classroom and any kind of positive involvement is helpful to the student.  Working parents can help by providing materials for classroom use.  Educational materials helps to achieve a high quality education for the students.
    Support for family involvement in education should be widespread.  Whether the family is a nuclear family or made up of extended members such as step parents or grandparents, everyone in the child=s life should take part in the education of that child.  In our community organizations such as the YMCA, Big Brothers /Big Sisters, and afterschool programs along with the family interaction helps to achieve a positive learning environment for every student.  When we make education top priority for everyone then our nation will truly be successful.

    Teachers are the foundation of education and the major link between the school and the home. Teachers have a wide range of responsibilities including keeping parents informed about their child and actively seeking to involve parents in school activities. Parental involvement can be a great asset or a tremendous burden upon teachers. In this section, focusing on the teacher and parental involvement, we will explore national goals and laws pertaining to parental involvement , several ways teachers can communicate with parents, ways to have parents involved in helping students with homework and involving parents in the classroom.
     Parental involvement is such an important issue, the national government has gotten involved by including it in the Goals 2000: Educate America Act. (Parental Involvement)
            “Every school will promote partnerships that will increase parental involvement
              and  participation in promoting the social, emotional, and academic growth of
               children.” (Goal 8- National Education Goals)
    Under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), Title I, Part A promotes partnership to benefit students and parents as well as schools and communities. Part A of Title I acknowledges the many roles parents play in their child’s education. Parental involvement plans range from federal to state and local educational agencies (LEAs). LEAs must submit a written parental involvement policy as part of Title I, which “sets the expectations and establishes the framework for parental participation in the LEA”. (Parental involvement)
      With all of the emphasis put on parental involvement it is extremely important for teachers to communicate with parents at the beginning of the year. One of the best ways to do this is to send home a parent information form. A parent information form gives a teacher the opportunity to do two things, tell about what the students will be doing and ask for information which will allow the teacher to know the parent and student better while opening the lines of communication. When telling parents what they can expect their child to be doing teachers can briefly and broadly lay out the curriculum as well as goals for students and different projects they will be participating in. If you as a teacher need supplies for certain projects this is a great opportunity to attach a list of things that will be needed throughout the year. When you ask parents for information about their child it is always important to include that the information is voluntary and only to help you get to know the parent and child. The form lets parents know you value their input, observations and expectations. The form’s content can be very simple, just asking the parent to write about their child’s interests, academic strengths and weaknesses and any information they feel you should know. (Fisher 263)
     On the first day of school a parent information form is just one of several things you may decide to send home to parents. Teachers should always include a way for parents to contact them as well as a form for any medication that a student may need to take and any special circumstances for their child. For example, if the student is not going to ride the bus, a parent must send a note.
     Sending information home on the first day of school is the beginning of written communication, which will be the most used form of communication between a teacher and most parents. There are many types of written communication, including newsletters on a weekly or monthly basis, letters, home/school journals and progress reports. Newsletters can be sent home to inform parents about what is going on in the classroom. The more parents know, the greater the likelihood they will want to be involved. Newsletters also gives you, the teacher, a chance to explain why you are doing certain projects and philosophy behind them. Weekly newsletters can be more time consuming because of the number of letters you are forced to generate, but they have advantages, especially early in the school year. Early in the year the frequent letters can acquaint parents with you and your teaching strategies. Monthly newsletters can be sent later in the school year to keep parents informed. (Fisher 265)
    A special letter can be sent home at any time during the school year. A special letter may explain a special project or ask for help from parents. Field trip permission forms along with a letter asking for chaperones would be an example.
     A home/school journal can be a spiral notebook with the student’s name on it. As a teacher you can simply write a few lines about the student and leave a place for parents to respond. A simple letter in the front of the journal can explain how it is to be used. This journal gives parents the opportunity to report absences, request clarification, describe a home incident or volunteer to help.
     Progress reports can be sent home periodically to explain students social and emotional growth or academic progress in reading, writing and math. (Fisher 266)
     The best way to communicate with parents is through their child’s work. A portfolio of student work can show improvement as well as strengths and weaknesses. Portfolios can be time consuming, but are required by many schools. If portfolios seem to time consuming, an informal portfolio, or just a collection of student work can be beneficial. Students work can be very beneficial in parent teacher conferences.
     Helping students with their homework is one of the most important things a parent can do. As a teacher there are a few suggestions you can give to parents. First, suggest that parents work with their child during a set time. It does not have to be the same time every day, but a routine will help the parent become accustomed to working with their child. Second, find a comfortable space. It does not have to be desk, but should be somewhere comfortable where neither the parent or the child will be distracted. Another method is to use a timer. This method helps keep the student focused. (Troen)
     Reading is another important task that parents can help students with at home.  Some good reading tips include limiting television, keeping a list of books the child has read and having the child read aloud. Parents being involved with student’s work outside of class may not be something a teacher can physically, but the results can definitely be seen in the classroom. (Troen)
     A wonderful way for parents to get a complete grasp on what is happening in the classroom is to have the parent come in and help. This is an excellent chance for you, as the teacher, to demonstrate how teaching and learning goes on in the classroom. Parents helping in the classroom can almost always be a success if you structure the experience correctly. Never put a parent in an uncomfortable situation. Talk with the parent and find out what he or she is comfortable with. It may be helpful to just let the parent observe at first, then move them into working one on one with a student. (Epstein)
      Another way to have parents in the classroom is through Visitor’s Day. This is where students invite family members to come into the classroom and see their work. This can include extended family members as well as immediate family. It is important to mention that not all children are raised by their parents so always include anyone who is important in the student’s life. Visitor’s Day can last about an hour and can be away to not only get parents involved, but get students excited about their work.   (Fisher 273)
     Many parents have exciting jobs which they would tell the class about so let parents know they can contribute to the class in that way also. Parents who would not otherwise come into the classroom will come and share something they feel confident about and it can be a great learning experience for your class.
 Teachers have an important responsibility to make their class open to parents and to actively seek parental involvement. Teachers must make every effort to keep lines of communication open and work together with parents in a partnership for everyone involved.

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